This is a twenty-six by forty-eight centimeter plan of the Champ de Mars during the Exposition Universelle of 1889, used by visitors at the time of the fair, a bold political statement on the part of France, as well as an overwhelming success. The Third Republic was established in Paris in 1870, and by 1884, when preliminary studies for the the Exposition Universelle were launched, many political issues were still largely unresolved. In 1870 Napoleon III surrendered at the Battle of Sedan during the Franco-Prussian War. Two days after the defeat Republicans proclaimed the advent of the Third Republic. The Franco-Prussian war ended with Paris's capitulation in 1871. A group of Parisians found Prussia's terms humiliating and wanted to keep fighting. Later dubbed the Communards, they established a dictatorship in Paris known as the Central Committee of the National Guard, later renamed La Commune. However, before La Commune could put its principles into effect, The National Assembly sent troops into Paris to eradicate the uprising. Even with the elimination of La Commune, there was great dissention within the government. There were conflicts between and within the Left and Right movements. An economic depression began in France in 1873 and worsened into the 1880s, affecting agriculture, industry, and small-scale trade. Citizen unrest was clearly evident in the popularity of General Georges Boulanger, who promised a reform, if not revolution, of the existing government.. In 1888, when Boulanger was at the height of his political esteem, the threat of governmental crisis was very palpable.

It was under these circumstances that the Paris exposition of 1889, to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution, was planned. Prime Minister Jules Ferry first proposed an exposition in 1880, with three political goals of "reconciliation, rehabilitation, and imperial supremacy" in mind (73, Silverman). The exposition would portray the Third Republic in a prestigious light, restoring pride and confidence in the flagging government. It would boost the economy, bolster the metal industry with the erection of immense pavilions, and create new job opportunities for workers. Political and social differences would be suspended for the duration of the fair.

Several sites were considered for the exposition, including the Champs Elysées, the Bois de Boulogne, and Bois de Vincennes. The Champ de Mars, which was finally selected as the main location for the exposition, has had a rich history. Comprising the stretch of land reaching from the Seine river to the École Militaire, it was used as the military school's parade ground. In 1790 the Fête de la Fédération was held on its grounds, and King Louis XVI took an oath to uphold the new constitution. In 1794, it witnessed the rally of the Supreme Being, a significant episode of the French Revolution. Since then, the Champ de Mars has been the site for several expositions. Today the Champ de Mars is a park with manicured lawns, its 1889 exposition buildings long gone, with the exception of the Eiffel Tower. The exposition also included the spaces not visible on the map: Trocadéro Palace and gardens (to the west of the Eiffel Tower), the Esplanade des Invalides (to the northeast of the Eiffel Tower), and the Quai d'Orsay. The Trocadéro featured gardens and horticulture. The Esplanade des Invalides displayed War department exhibits, schoolhouses from various countries, and French colonies. The Quai d'Orsay hosted exhibitions on agriculture and food products.

This plan displays only the part of the fair held on the Champ de Mars, and is actually quite delicate, one of three foldout maps found in the back of a small guidebook measuring eleven by seventeen centimeters and approximately one and a half centimeters thick. The guidebook, made especially for the 1889 exposition, was called Guide Bleu du Figaro at du Petit Journal, implying that it was published jointly by Le Figaro and Le Petit Journal, two newspapers based in Paris. Le Figaro was published for the first time on January 15th, 1826, and remains al leading daily newspaper in Paris today. Their website can be found at www.figaro.fr.

The Guide Bleu du Figaro et du Petit Journal is approximately 288 pages long, and comprises illustrations and plans designed by S. Krakow. The first page of the book advertises five maps and thirty-one drawings. Very detailed descriptions of the pavilions are interspersed among a wide array of advertisements, no doubt to keep the price of the book down at one franc. The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), which lists the holdings thousands of libraries around the world, reports that there are seven other Guide Bleu du Figaro et du Petit Journal in the United States. WorldCat, another comprehensive database of publications, lists two additional libraries that own the Guide Bleu.

Inspired by the historical Arc de Triomphe, the layout of the exposition itself was meant to stir pride in France. Atop the Champs-Elysées, according to Edward Lockroy, "...it was understood that the exhibition would take the form of an Arch of Triumph laid out on the ground; the summit being formed by the Palace of Machines, the Keystone by the Central Dome, and the two extended arms by the parallel Palace of Beaux Arts and the Palace of the Liberal Arts" ( Silverman, 85).

The exposition opened the day after the official centennial celebration, which included a pilgrimage to Versailles. On May 6, President Sadi Carnot inaugurated the fair by leading a procession along the Champs-Elysées, across the Pont d'Iéna (directly west of the Eiffel tower, off the map), underneath the Eiffel Tower, along the central axis of the fair, finally stopping under the Central Dome where the opening ceremonies were held. The goal of the exposition was made clear in Carnot's speech that day:

Today France glorifies the dawn of a great century which has opened a new era in the history of mankind. Today we contemplate, in its brilliancy and in its splendor, the work born of this century of labor and of progress...Our dear France is worthy of attracting to her the chosen of the peoples. She has the right to be proud of herself and to celebrate with head erect the economic centenary, as also the political centenary, of 1889. (43, United States Commission to Paris Exposition)

The French president wanted to establish pride in the nation and in its new government, proclaiming to the world France's status as a powerful nation.

The exposition featured an extraordinary array of exhibits. To the west of the Eiffel Tower, running from north to south on the far left of the map, was Charles Garnier's Histoire de l'Habitation Humaine.

The Eiffel Tower is found towards the left of the map, surrounded by greenery. The four squares on the map labeled "Soubass du Pilier" (for soubassement) formed the corners of the tower. Built for the exposition, the building was itself a symbol of the movement towards liberal democracy, personified by Science and Technology. The arches of the first platform were designed with the Arc de Triomphe in mind, and, according to the United States commissioners to the Paris exposition, the top was modeled on the steeples of the Notre Dame. The tower was contracted by Gustave Eiffel, but the architect who actually designed its silhouette was Stephen Sauvestre, with Maurice Koechlin et Emile Nouguier acting as structural engineers. The tower was 986 feet high, weighed 7300 tons, and employed between 150 and 200 construction workers. It cost about 6,500,000 Francs. Originally, it was supposed to be in front of the Ecole Militaire and Central Dome in the middle of Champ de Mars, but eventually it was placed at the west end of the Champ de Mars. The first story was approximately 4200 square meters, and contained four restaurants: Russian, Anglo-American, French and one for Alsace-Lorraine. The second story was 1400 square meters, and had an office where the "Figaro de la Tour Eiffel" was printed. The third floor was octagonal in shape, with alternating sides of twelve and two meters in length. It held Eiffel's private office, which he used primarily for scientific observations. Today, the first floor houses a buffet, a restaurant, a post office, and souvenir shops. The second floor has another souvenir shop, buffet, and restaurant. The top floor functions mostly as an observation deck. Educational displays are found on every level of the tower.

The Palace of Liberal Arts, southeast of the Eiffel Tower and towards the bottom center of the map, featured the first exhibit entirely devoted to primary education in a world's fair. It showcased how public education was institutionalized under the Third Republic. The Palace of Fine Arts, to the northeast of the Eiffel tower and directly opposite the Palace of Liberal Arts, held the largest exhibit of art at an exposition and most extensive display of American art in Europe up to that time, with 572 objects. Photographic realism prevailed, although a few impressionist paintings were also displayed. To the left of the Palace of Fine Arts were pavilions devoted to pastel and watercolor work. The Monaco pavilion was also located in this section. Behind the Palace of Liberal Arts were many pavilions, one of which was devoted to Thomas Edison's inventions and to electricity, and another to the Press.

The Machinery Hall, at the far right of the map, was called in the report of one of the United States commissioner "the boldest work of the exhibition" (p.78). Ferdinand Dutert acted as the chief architect, and Victor Contamin as structural engineer. Machinery Hall covered fifteen acres, and was 148 feet high at its apex. It used twice as much metal as the Eiffel Tower. Contamin found a way to span a 377 feet without intermediate support, a span unprecedented at the time. The building had extensive ornamentation, using multicolored brick, mosaic, stencils, paintings, and drawings. It was divided into three main parts.

The Central Dome can be seen near the middle of the map, at the far left of the Machinery Hall. The cupola had circular panels representing the various crafts: ceramics, glassmaking, gold smithery, and cabinet making. Behind the dome was the central gallery, where objects related to small-scale manufacturing and artisan production were displayed. This central gallery was divided into twenty-eight box-like rooms, each with cabinet cases. The third section ran from the Avenue de Suffren to the Avenue de La Bourdonnais (south to north), consisted of one long corridor. The first half of the gallery contained items related to civil engineering, ceramic arts, cabinet making, mechanisms, electricity, agriculture, mining, metallurgy, printing, and paper making. The right side of the second half of the gallery was devoted to railway material, spinning, weaving, iron, and working machinery. The left side had special places for exhibits from Switzerland, Belgium, the United States, and England.

Many European countries boycotted the Third Republic and shunned the exposition. They did not have any official pavilions at the site, leaving more space for other nations that had been underrepresented at previous fairs. At the western end of the map, located among the green areas of the parks, were Latin American pavilions, such as Mexico, Argentina, and Venezuela. Foreign exhibits are indicated on the map in yellow, French ones in pink.

The fair offered a lot in terms of amusement. There were numerous restaurants, some of them scattered among the parks of the Eiffel Tower, and some inside the already discussed buildings. Military bands and theatrical groups played on the Champ de Mars, while dancing exhibits were found on the Rue du Caire, indicated to the south east of the map by a long rectangle labeled "Bazar Egyptien". The entire exposition was transformed into a fair ground at night, turning into a "grande fête" or "ville lumière". Electricity, which was still rather new and exhibited at the exposition, lit up all 228 acres of the exposition. The Eiffel Tower was painted with colored enamels, and lit up with red, white, and blue lights at night. The trottoir roulant, or moving sidewalk, also made a splash at the exposition, as the technology was new. Today, moving sidewalks are used extensively in Paris, through the metro or airports.

The exposition managed to achieve the goals Jules Ferry originally sought. Roughly thirty two million visitors came to visit, bolstering the economy. The exposition resolved a significant portion of the political and social tension, boosting the confidence of the general public in the Republic. Boulanger's popularity diminished as Frenchmen focused on the exposition, and he fled to Belgium in April of 1889; a potential revolution was avoided. The exposition not only fostered national pride, it secured France's rank in the eyes of Europe.

-Ly Y. Bui

Findling, John E., Historical Dictionary of World's Fairs and Expositions, 1851-1988 New York: Greenwood Press, 1990

Jourdain, Frantz, Exposition Universelle de 1889 Paris: Librarie Centrale des Beaux-arts, 1892

Levin, Miriam, When the Eiffel Tower was New: French Visions of Progress at the Centennial of the Revolution South Hadley, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989

Silverman, Deborah L., "The Crisis of Bourgeois Individualism", Oppositions 1977, vol. 8, p.70-91

Walton, William, Chefs-d'oeuvre de l'Exposition Universelle de Paris 1889 Philadelphia: Barrie Fr res, 1889

Watson, William,Paris Universal Exposition Washington: Government Printing Office, 1892

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The Exposition Universelle de 1889 in Paris was meant to commemorate the centennial of the French Revolution. It boasted new architectural styles, as well as the more generous use of electricity in the pavilions. In the earliest world's fairs, all the displays were housed collectively under one roof. This eventually changed to a different type of organization, where exhibits were separated into categories based on their content, as was already the case at the 1873 Vienna exhibition. At the 1876, 1878 and 1889 fairs, countries presented their own individual pavilions. While at first the international community seemed a bit hesitant to participate in a fair meant to celebrate a Revolution, many countries decided to participate and erect a special pavilion. Countries such as Japan, Siam, Persia, Turkey, Russia, Greece, as well as many Latin American nations presented national exhibits. When the 1889 Paris Exhibition is first mentioned, most people immediately think of the construction of the famed Eiffel Tower. This striking monument, enhanced with nighttime lights, brought the admiration of many and earned itself a place as a permanent fixture and international symbol for Paris. The fair was known for its impressively modern constructions of iron and glass, such as Machinery Hall. The pavilion for the Principality of Monaco can be noted at this fair, not for its grand scale or modern appeal, but for its delicate return to a classic style which turned attention to a small, yet sophisticated nation. Its proximity to the Eiffel tower symbolized the ongoing relationship between France and Monaco.

There were several reasons why Monaco received such attention at the fair, with its placement in the very heart of the exhibition. Changes experienced within the principality were directly translated into the landscaping and design of the pavilion. This 8 X 11 inch photograph of the Monaco building is one of a series of 28 taken at the 1889 exhibition. Its viewpoint captures the impressive entrance facade, framed by the surrounding palm trees. This is a rather idealistic image, as there are no people or other objects to distract from the pavilion. However, the photograph does show the positioning of the structure, as well as some if its details, rather effectively. It rested just in the southwestern shadow of the Eiffel tower, as seen in the picture; photographs of the building could not be taken without catching the Eiffel tower rising behind it. One can also note the archways on the first platform of the Eiffel tower, which peep just over the roof of the Monaco building and have since been removed.

As the Eiffel Tower was intended to be the central structure of the celebration, the juxtaposition of the Monaco Pavilion in such close proximity to the tower cannot go unnoticed. At the time of the exhibition, Monaco existed as a principality with a constitutional monarchy. The history of Monaco was irrevocably linked with France. In 1489, King Charles VIII of France granted Monaco its independence; up until that point the region had been completely under French sovereignty. However, in 1793 the Revolutionary regime in France reneged on this decision, reclaiming Monaco as part of its territory. In 1861 Monaco was given its independence again. Monaco has since remained a principality governed by the local Grimaldi family. This manifestation of friendship through the pavilion is not surprising, as France seemed to prefer to maintain good relations with her former dependents. In fact, in 1951, an agreement of friendship and mutual administration was signed between the two neighbors, decreeing that if the line of Grimaldi were to come to an end, Monaco was to become an autonomous French department. After its independence in 1861, and particularly at the turn of the twentieth century, Monaco experienced an awakening. Its Grand Prix, Exotic Gardens, and Monte-Carlo Casino were soon discovered by wealthy Europeans and Americans, and it gained an image as one of the most fashionable and cultured places to travel and vacation. As the villegiature of the French Riviera emerged, Monaco became the object of much international admiration. This tiny country with a lush landscape, no income tax, and a rumored 300 days of sunshine annually, caught the fascination of many famous individuals. The area between Grasse, Cannes, and Nice soon became known as the golden triangle of the Côte d'Azur, a spectacular location nestled between the Mediterranean coast and the snow-capped Alps. In 1861 the railroad was extended to Cannes, and 1869 Nice was connected as well. In 1863, the Seabath Company established a casino and several luxurious hotels in the "Spelugues" quarter, which in 1866 was renamed Monte Carlo in honor of Prince Charles III, then the current monarch. In 1889, Prince Charles III passed away and was succeeded by Prince Albert I, who governed over Monaco as it continued to develop. As travel was made easier, and guides and resorts sprang up everywhere, the number of vacationers visiting the French Riviera continued to increase. Indeed, "...the idle rich of Europe customarily migrated from place to place with a weather eye on the barometer, in search of eternal springtime", which was certainly to be found on the Mediterranean coast. (Gardens) In Cannes alone, 250 elaborate houses and gardens were constructed between 1840 and 1870. The establishment in Monaco of the successful Opera in 1869 and the Mus e Oc anographique, touted as the best aquarium in Europe, drew more crowds. By the 1850's, there was already a large British presence in the region. This fascination with the unknown and exotic, coupled with the increasing improvement in modes of transportation, led to the popularization of this region. (Gardens) Luminaries such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and his wife Zelda, legends of the Jazz Age, would later retreat here in lavish glory. The growing popularity of the French Riviera and Monaco is seen in the building, whose design and foliage conjures up the image of the ideal country home with a unique sense of mystery.

Unlike the more progressive buildings of the fair, the Monaco pavilion, modeled after an Italian Villa of the Renaissance Period, symbolized a return to the classical. The pavilion itself was modeled after an Italian villa of the Renaissance period. Although already present in Roman antiquity, this type of country villa was revived in the late 15th century when Europe was being flooded with new ideas about man's place in the universe. Many new developments in scientific and philosophical thought were emerging, as well as a new appreciation for the harmony which could be found between man and nature. These thoughts were the inspiration for Italian Renaissance architecture at the time. Indeed, the goal of a villa architect should be to "...deduce the hidden order from the chaos presented to him by nature". (Villas) The villa developed under this influence and became one of Italy's most representative structures. Architect Andrea Palladio, is well associated with the development of this particular building type. His lovely country houses with features inspired by Roman form gave identifying characteristics to what would be called the Italian villa. External structures such as colonnades, porticos and arcades would become trademarks of this architecture type and can be seen in the Monaco Pavilion.

The Monaco building itself included a central hall which was then surrounded by four smaller corner pavilions. An atmosphere of exotic charm was easily created through the landscape. Palm trees, cacti, jasmine, rhododendron and other blooms and plants brilliantly complement the orange marble veneer of the facades. On the interior, there were also hangings of Monte-Carlo fabrics to ornament the walls.

For Palladio, the villa was meant to occupy a central and elevated position, from which nature could sprawl outwards, with a commanding view from the porticos of the building. This ideal was implemented in the Monaco building. In addition, the gardens also followed the tradition of the gardens on the French Riviera, which were planned with particular attention to the architecture which they accompanied. It was even said that at this time "...visiting gardens was a social pastime on the Côte d'Azur". (Gardens). Just at the time of the fair, the head gardener of Monaco, Augustin Gastaud, was in the process of formulating the soon to be famous Jardin Exotique, known for its succulents. The wealthy who vacationed in the Côte d'Azur showed a growing interest in subtropical plants which hinted to the distant and mysterious Orient. Indeed, the Monaco building epitomized the popular trends of French Riviera gardens at the time, which placed special emphasis on irregularities, rare plants, and flowers". (Gardens)

Altogether, the Monaco building represented the blooming of the culture of the French Riviera, as Europe and the West became entranced with the appeal of travel to warmer climates and alluring surroundings. For this reason, it was given a significant position in the fair. Furthermore, the architecture and gardens of the pavilion sought to express the spirit of the villa and its coexistence with nature, as well as the distinctive plants which were so favored by tourists to the region. The building alluded to the luxurious and aesthetic lifestyle for which the principality was becoming known. It symbolized change experienced by the the country it represented.

-Anna Burrows

L'Exposition de Paris de 1889 No. 1, 15 Oct. 1888.

Michel, Racine. The Gardens of Provence and the French Riviera. MIT Press. 1987.

"The Paris Exhibitions-Expositon Universelle de Paris" http://www.photoart.com/expos/index.htm

"Loitering Through the Paris Exposition" Atlantic Monthly, March 1890, Volume 39, Issue 2 Making of America Collection, Cornell University Library http://www.boondocksnet.com/expos/paris1889.html

"Impressions of the International Exhibition of 1889" The Century, December 1889 Making of America Collection, Cornell University Library http://www.boondocksnet.com/expos/paris1889.html

"Paris Panorama of the Nineteenth Century" The Century, December 1889, Volume 39, Issue 2 Making of America Collection, Cornell University Library http://www.boondocksnet.com/expos/paris1889.html

"Monaco" by Gale Force of Monaco http://monaco.mc/monaco/index.html

"General Informations" by Monte-Carlo Multimedia, 2000 http://www.monte-carlo.mc/principalitymonaco/globalinformations/

Masson, Georgina. Italian Villas and Palaces. New York. Abrams.1966

Ree Paul van der. Italian Villas and Gardens: a corso di disegno. Amsterdam. Prestel.1992

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Since the 1851 Great Exhibition, world's fairs have always attempted to celebrate cultural diversity. In pavilions, participating countries promoted their natural resources and industrial products, while celebrating their national identity. However, not all cultures could be accurately portrayed. These exhibits did not prevent negative stereotypes about other people's cultures for persisting.

Stereotyping almost became an art form, and was particularly apparent at the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, where specific buildings were built to exemplify architectural stereotypes of different countries. As part of an exhibition called L'Histoire de L'Habitation Humaine or History of Human Habitation, which was the creation of architect Charles Garnier. Many of these small structures related to remote and "exotic" locations around the world. One of the countries that received the exotic treatment was Russia, despite this country's political power.

Charles Garnier was born in 1825 and studied architecture at the Paris Ecole des Beaux-Arts. After he was awarded the Grand Prix de Rome in 1848, he went to study architecture in Italy. In 1860, Garnier won the competition for the new Paris Opera House, which was not completed until 1875 and remains his most important commission. His other works include villas he built in Bordighera, Italy, an Observatory in Nice, the Cercle de la Librairie in Paris, and many very famous works in Monte Carlo, including a casino resort.

Charles Garnier was also a self-appointed expert in world cultures and their architecture. Thanks to the fame he had acquired at the Paris Opera House, he was asked by the fair commission to design "foreign" buildings for the World's Fair in 1889. Later in 1892, Garnier wrote a campanion book called Histoire de L'Habitation. Most of the information below is taken from this book written in 1892, and Garnier should not be taken as a real worldwide expert on cultures. Therefore, this information is not necessarily the whole truth, but it makes us understand Garnier's rationale behind the Russian House.

He first examined the origins of the Russian people. The country came out of the Dark Ages in the 9th and 10th centuries under the influence of people Garnier called the Varègues. These descendants of the pirates of Scandinavia were present all over Northern and Eastern Europe. Scandinavian residential architecture did not meet with resistance when it came to Russia, because it was similar in color schemes to that of the Slavic people. The main difference related to its greater reliance on wood. In Slavic society, a strict control over contact between the sexes was exercised, in order to minimize their interaction. In the Russian House, the men were supposed to occupy the ground floor, while women lived above. Another common design was an exterior staircase which allowed women to gain access to the house without going through the male areas. The ground floor was built of sturdy materials such as brick, with very few windows and only one door, while the first floor and above consisted mostly of wood. To enliven the simple looking ground floor, Garnier placed wooden pillars at the corners.

Throughout its history, Russia has been conquered by foreign powers. Each nation influenced its culture and architecture. Even the attack of the Mongolians in the 14th century left a mark. However, perhaps the most influential force that changed Russian architecture is connected to the Byzantine Empire.

Russian leader Vladmir chose the Orthodox religion because of the great stories he heard from his envoys about the enlightened Byzantines. New ways of carving wood and new ornamentation came into practice, causing the upper stories to become more and more elaborate. The exterior stairs often ended with a large draped lobby leading to the women's chambers, while the ground floor remained just a plain brick enclosed interior. A major decorative theme can be found in the Byzantine-looking cupola shaped as a garlic bulb.

This Russian house is just a personal and subjective interpretation of how an entire culture can be translated into architecture. Russia is a large and diverse country, and its residential architecture cannot be completely represented within one house. Garnier seems to have applied findings from Physiognomy, a pseudo-science that was popular at the time, where facial and body features are attributed to psychological characteristics. In reality no house could have exhibited so many "characteristic" features. Accurate or not, the Russian house grabbed visitors' attention and houses built by Garnier in for the World's Fair were a resounding success.

-Cong Huo

Chandler,Arthur."Revolution." http://charon.sfsu.edu/PARISEXPOSITIONS/1889EXPO.html World's Fair magazine. 1986 revised 2000.

Doumato, Lamia. Charles Garnier, 1825-1898 Vance Bibliographies. Monticello, Ill. 1988.

Garnier, Charles, "La Maison Russe," L'Habitation Humaine. Paris, Hachette 1892, 701-710

Jourdain, Frantz. Exposition universelle de 1889. Constructions élevées au Champ de Mars par M.. Ch. Garnier... pour servir à l'histoire de l'habitation humaine. J. W. Bouton, New York. 1892.

Mead, Christopher Curtis. Charles Garnier's Paris Opéra : architectural empathy and the renaissance of French classicism. MIT Press. Cambridge Mass. 1991.

Vernes, Michel. "La leçon d'architecture de Monsieur Garnier." Architecture intérieure créé. 249, August-September1992, 38-45.

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